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(Author Unknown). (1998). Mathematics and dyslexia. Perspectives, Fall 1998. [Reprinted on the Internet at: www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/math_skills/ida_math_fall98.html]

This article describes the variety of difficulties that students with dyslexia may have in mathematics. Some students may have trouble primarily with conceptual knowledge, others may have problems primarily with procedural knowledge and executing calculations, and still others may have no problems with math because of dyslexia. The article explains how dyslexic students' difficulty with written language interferes with mathematics. These students may have trouble understanding mathematical vocabulary. Word problems are difficult because of the reading involved. The authors note that, in order to teach most effectively, instructors must realize the language inherent in mathematics, and the important role that it plays in linking conceptual and procedural knowledge, a link which is the foundation of mathematical understanding. The article stresses the importance of using a multisensory approach to teaching mathematics to dyslexic students, using concrete manipulatives and pictoral representations to teach abstract concepts.

Academy for Educational Development (1995). Screening for adults with learning disabilities: The role of the practitioner in the assessment process. [ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED387988]

This is a guide for those who work in literacy programs to assist in identification of struggling students who may be learning disabled. The authors present details that could assist practitioners when performing informal assessments in an effort to plan instruction. It gives tips on screening for vision/hearing and/or auditory/visual processing problems, academic performance, and behaviors/psychological manifestations. This article is helpful for those working in literacy programs or any other type of learning situation. This article enforces that early detection is important to ensure success for these students.

Bardine, B. (1997). Working with learning disabled writers: some perspectives. Kent State University OH, Ohio Literacy Resource Center, March 1997. [ERIC Reproduction Service No. ED 406 554]

The author discusses methods that help students with learning disabilities become better writers. He begins by explaining characteristics of students with LD. Some of things mentioned are: difficulties following oral directions, keeping up with group conversations, handwriting, and/or reading and spelling problems. Then whole language philosophy to learning is discussed, this basically states that language skills should be taught together to enable students to learn them more effectively. The author asserts that the whole language classroom benefits an LD writer in many ways. One in particular is that there is more time spent on witting. Another helpful method for LD writers addresses what is called the landmark method. This method explores the inter-relatedness of reading, writing, speaking, and listening. For example, the students talk aloud as they write. This is good for LD students because it emphasizes metacogonition and it enables the students to eventually talk like they write. Then in conclusion the author makes connections between the two types of methods presented. This article is useful as it lends itself to two popular methods and gives a relationship as to how these are useful for LD students in higher education.

Barr, A., Donahue, W., Podrid, A., Seeling, S. (1987). Successful college tutoring: focusing on the learning disabled student in the learning center. Long Island University, Brooklyn, N.Y., April 1987.

This is a guide to help those who tutor students with learning disabilities. It provides strategies and techniques to help tutors provide better service to these students. It begins by giving a detailed definition of learning disabilities. The authors then talk about characteristics of LD college students. In this description there is a list of typical strengths, reading skills, written language skills, listening and speaking skills, mathematical skills, organization skills, study skills, and social skills. Following that are suggestions for tutoring reading. There is a brief introduction that discusses ways to help tutors understand their students needs in reading. It suggests giving an informal reading inventory to get an idea of where they are in their reading. Getting to know the students reading ability lends itself to effective tutoring. After that is an outline of four major categories that tutors should teach their students. It includes reading flexibility, comprehension, vocabulary development, and strategy application. The next section outlines suggestions for tutoring writing. They begin with offering tips followed by a detailed outline, which can be used to help the student. This outline includes techniques to generate ideas (prewriting), enrich vocabulary, further advance writing organization skills, and improve proofreading. This outline also includes a final section on how computers can be used to teach writing. Finally the authors offer suggestions for tutoring study skills. Basically, this is an outline of things to consider when helping students with special needs strengthen their skills. The appendix includes college study skills checklist and a tutor log.

Bowe, F.G. (2000). Universal Design in Education - Teaching Nontraditional Students. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.

This handbook introduces universal instructional design in education in various educational settings (from kindergarten through university programs, adult and continuing education). Discussed is how to meet the needs of a diverse student body including (but not limited to) non European-American/Judeo-Christian Western "white" cultures, non-traditional students, and students with disabilities. This book helps educators reevaluate who should be responsible for accessibility and assistive technology and emphasizes the fact that universal design gives all students the opportunity to be successful. The author suggests that readers not read the book front to back, but rather use it for reference material. When reading this book, as suggested, readers should spend the most time on chapters 1-3 to become familiar with the book, the principle of universal design, and how it can be applied to the classroom. Then chapters 4-7 should be used to reference as problems or questions arise throughout the academic year. Chapter 8 discusses web designs and technology. Then chapter 9 synthesizes all the information in the book. In summary: CHAPTER 1 talks about diverse student bodies. It is essentially broken down into four sections: people with disabilities, members of ethnic/racial minority cultures, different learning styles, and people for whom traditional approaches are inconvenient. The "people with disabilities" section gives a brief overview of various disabilities such as learning disabilities, ADD/ADHD, hearing loss, blindness and low vision, and physical disabilities. The section on "members of ethnic/racial minority cultures" helps instructors understand that their values and views may differ from those of other backgrounds and that in order to help meet these students' needs instructors must be understanding and have a broader view of different cultures besides their own. The section on "different learning styles" discusses how instructors must understand that students learn in different ways and that these various ways are what makes any particular student successful. Also within the chapter there is a section that discusses the different types of people for whom traditional approaches are inconvenient. In summary, it is about how traditional college schedules and methods could cause some students difficulties. CHAPTER 2 provides information on the seven principles of universal design. It begins by giving a short introduction and some definitions. Then it introduces the seven principles: equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach and use. Each area gives a definition of the concept and the basic guidelines. Following in CHAPTER 3 the author talks about universally designed education in PreK-12, colleges/universities, and continuing/adult education. It goes into the very basics of current universal design concepts that are standard in these various situations. Then the seven principles introduced in the last chapter are applied to education. As mentioned earlier, CHAPTERS 4-7 further break down and outline the seven principles. These principles can be referred to as problems arise in the classroom. CHAPTER 8 is about web site accessibility. This chapter gives tips to teachers on how to make their website more accessible. Then there is a section on how to use other people's web sites with the intent to make them accessible for specific needs. Then concluding the book is a summary and two appendixes titled "Instructional Media" and "Resources". This book is very user friendly and gives valuable information that teachers can use.

Brochtrup, M. & Kelley, C.  (1995).  Strategies in math for college students.  Latest Developments, Fall 1995, 4-6.

The authors discuss that despite the fact that most learning impaired students are not prepared for mathematics at the college level, most are still required to complete quantitative math courses.  When these students seek help for math from disability specialist it usually does not help because these specialists are not trained in various math components.  One way to help these students is for educators to have an understanding of the needs of students with disabilities.  This article addresses the difficulties that college students with learning disabilities experience in math and suggests methods for educators.  The authors list topics that most of these students have as concerns and then list assumptions about teaching these students, that when clarified, can make students more successful.  The authors talk about how students start higher-level mathematics without a strong foundation from their lower level courses, and that without a good foundation teaching will be difficult.  When instructing these students it is important to understand this and to know that their instruction must be based on different delivery methods.  The authors mention that once students and instructors learn what works best in an educational setting then the list of ideas presented can help them.  They list ideas for auditory strategies, visual strategies, and kinesthetic strategies.  They then conclude that educators can assist students, and provide a more positive learning environment, by helping them approach math in an organized way and by using the suggested teaching methods.  This article is very helpful to instructors and students who have been through CTAD training because it provides a comprehensive list of strategies can help all be successful in math.

Chang, M.K., Richards, S.J., & Jackson A. (1996). Accommodating students with disabilities: A practical guide for faculty. [ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 404827]

This document is a handbook of accommodation strategies, practices and resources. It is useful for those who want concrete information about the needs of students with visual, hearing, physical or learning disabilities. The authors provide a description of these four disability groups and the major problems posed by each type of disability. Very specific technical and non-technical accommodations relevant to these disability groups are presented. A 5 step procedure for making accommodation decisions is suggested and a case scenario is provided which illustrates implementation of the steps. The document concludes with resources and organizations related to accommodating disabled students.

Frauenheim, J.G., & Hecheri, J.R. (1983). A longitudinal study of psychological and achievement test performance in severe dyslexic adults. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16(6).

The focus of the report is how dyslexia affects psychological and educational test performance of adults who were diagnosed dyslexic as children. Participants who took part in this extensive study included eleven subjects who experienced academic difficulties from their early schoolings. The authors saw each of the subjects individually for psychological and educational testing, as well as an interview. The areas of this report include psychological testing, achievement testing, reading, spelling, and arithmetic. The results of these tests showed that the dyslexic adults had pronounced reading and spelling deficits. There were also patterns of skill weakness as shown by the psychological and academic tests. The authors suggest that life long intervention efforts are a way to combat difficulties faced by people with dyslexia.

Freed, B.F. (1987). Exemptions from the foreign language requirement: A review of recent literature, problems, and policy. ADFL Bulletin, 18(2), 13-17.

This is a discussion paper that focuses on the information presented at both the University of Pennsylvania colloquium and the Modern Language Association pertaining to exemptions from foreign language requirements for students with learning disabilities. The issues focus on policy and procedures adopted by the University of Pennsylvania. These policies and procedures can be considered when analyzing any major university with a diverse student body. During the presentations several issues were brought up. One topic discussed the definition of a learning disability which included several characteristics that instructors should be aware of when trying to refer a student. There was no agreement on how the learning disabled should be diagnosed and if there should be special exemptions for students diagnosed. There was the realization that there is a need for special courses, accommodations, or remedial techniques for learning disabled students. The author then lists the University's new policy derived from the information presented at the colloquium and from informal surveys of other institutions. This policy and procedure can be helpful for faculty and staff in making decisions whether or not to exempt students with disabilities from foreign language program requirements.

Ganschow, L., Sparks, R.L., Javorsky, J., Pohlman, J., & Bishop-Marbury, A. (1991). Identifying native language difficulties among foreign language learners in college: a "foreign" language learning disability? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4(9), 530-541.

There are a large number of universities and colleges that have policies regarding students with learning disabilities who many have difficulties fulfilling foreign language requirements. Suggestions are made that those who have foreign language difficulties also have native language difficulties. This study examines the differences between successful and non-successful college foreign language learners on tests of intelligence, foreign language aptitude, oral and written language, and mathematics. The authors take a close look at variables that have previously been thought to contribute to success or failure in foreign language classes. The elements of the study included thirty juniors and seniors from different Midwestern universities - half were successful foreign learners and half were not. They were tested in the domains of intelligence, foreign language aptitude, phonology, grammar and syntax, semantics, and mathematics. The results the this research show that students who have foreign language learning difficulties are not less intelligent, are weak in phonological and syntactic (grammatical areas), and have reading comprehensions skills that are comparable to successful foreign language learners. The authors suggest that phonological and syntactic difficulties in native language lead to problems in learning a foreign language. Research should be further examined as to whether phonological and/or syntactic training should be provided for adults with learning disabilities and the possibility of these students studying languages that rely on orthographic systems (such as Chinese) as a solid alternative.

Gerber, P.J, & Reiff, H.B. (1994). Learning Disabilities in Adulthood: Persisting Problems and Evolving Issues. Stoneham, MA: Butterworth-Hinemann.

This book addresses issues that are of concern for adults with disabilities and other interested parties. Various authors addressing a wide range of educational issues contributed to the book's content. Chapters nine through fifteen focus on education, and since they are more relevant to CTAD than other chapters in the book, they will be summarized here. Chapter nine, entitled "Transition of youths with learning disabilities: The secondary education foundation", describes transition policy and legislation affecting secondary education programs and transition planning for youths with learning disabilities. The author offers a step-by-step process that includes case study examples. Chapter ten continues the education process by addressing post-secondary and vocational training. This chapter titled, "Post-secondary education and vocation training: Keys to success for adults with learning disabilities" by E.H. Minskoff, begins by defining learning disabilities, and proceeds by giving more detail on factors related to success, family support, socioeconomic status, and post-secondary educational and vocational training. The issue of literacy- another factor that affects adults with learning disabilities- is the focal concern of chapter eleven, "Adult literacy and learning disabilities" by C.W. Anderson. The author examines literacy by using statistics and other types of supporting information. "Services for students with learning disabilities in the community colleges" by D.F. Mellard, is the topic for chapter twelve. The overall environment for students with learning disabilities is the focus for this chapter. Many characteristics of community colleges, which may be of special concern for the learning disabled, are addressed. In chapter thirteen titled, "College and university programming", the authors discuss services for students with disabilities, admissions, eligibility, and accommodations. "Assistive technology for adults with learning disabilities: A rational for use" is the title of chapter fourteen. This author, M.H. Raskind, gives an overview of assistive technology and technological matters for persons who want to learn more about learning disabilities and education.

Gregg, N. (1983). College learning disabled writer: Error patterns and instructional alternatives. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16(6), 334-338.

The author offers error patterns common for learning disabled writers and instructional alternatives for educators. A section on error analysis describes error patterns in learning disabled writers, basic writers, and normal writers. This information is supported by research done by the author. Then two instructional alternatives are mentioned: guided composition and sentence combining. This article gives some useful information for those who work with a diverse group of learners because it gives a good overview of error patterns that instructors may confront.

Hodge, B.M. & Preston-Sabin, J. (1997). Accommodations--or just good teaching? Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

This book provides a comprehensive look at incorporating good teaching practices in higher education and how these practices will serve students with disabilities. There is a detailed legislative history of issues surrounding disability and higher education, as well as information on faculty rights and responsibilities. The authors supply a useful distinction between treatment (which refers to applying some remedy to the disability) and accommodation (an adaptation designed to help the students display their knowledge). They point out that unlike K-12 schools, which must both treat and accommodate students, universities are only required to accommodate. This distinction may help to reduce fear for some instructors.

As the title indicates, the book argues that providing reasonable accommodations to students with disabilities is part of good teaching practice, and that good teaching practice enhances learning for all students. The book contains separate chapters on teaching students with a variety of disabilities. Each chapter explores a particular kind of disability (such as "Attention, concentration, or memory difficulties") and includes a definition and a useful list of questions a professor can consider or discuss with a student. Descriptive scenarios narrating the experiences of specific students, their disabilities, and accommodation processes could go a long way towards helping faculty understand the nature of specific disabilities, provide accommodation, and think critically about their own teaching practices.

Hodge, B. & Sabin-Preston, J.  (1994).  Your teaching experience and students with disabilities.  NADE 18^th Conference Proceedings, 16-17.

This article presents some findings obtained from a research project identified as, "Teaching Strategies and Accommodations for Students with Disabilities".  It addresses issues to help teachers who have little experience teaching students with special needs to be more productive in the classroom.  The objective of this study is to identify teaching strategies and/or accommodations for students with disabilities through essays written by teachers and then later gather this information for classroom teachers to use as a future reference. 

Hughes, C.A., & Suritsky, S.K. (1993). Notetaking skills and strategies for students with learning disabilities. Preventing School Failure, 38(1), 7-11.

The authors describe the skills involved in note-taking, which of these skills pose special difficulty for learning disabled students, and instructor practices that can help compensate for these skill deficiencies. Two prior studies examining learning disabled students' note-taking skills and strategies are discussed. One of these studies made a comparison between students with and without a learning disability, and the other involved interviews with learning disabled students only.

In the qualitative interview study, learning disabled students indicated that they have difficulty writing fast enough, identifying important lecture points, and understanding their notes after lecture. Results from the comparative study indicated that learning disabled students tend to make less abbreviations in their notes, and record fewer key points and less information in general.

The authors discuss both accommodating and skill building approaches to help learning disabled students with note taking difficulties. The authors argue against a strictly "accommodating" approach which removes the requirement that a student takes notes. In support of this argument, research is cited regarding the positive impact that taking notes has on memory. The authors suggest some things instructors can do to help relieve some of the difficulty that learning disabled students have taking notes: Accommodations such as providing lecture outlines, clearly emphasizing key points, and modifying the lecture pace are very helpful. Specific techniques for teaching note taking skills and strategies are also presented.

This article could be helpful for faculty since it clearly delineates the component skills involved in note taking- skills which instructors may take for granted-, how LD students may have difficulty with these component skills, and what specifically faculty can do to help.

Jay, C. & Blackerby, C. ( 2000). Hope Is Not a Method: How Instructional Strategies and Technologies for the Learning Disabled Can Benefit Traditional Learners. North Harris Montgomery Community Coll. District, Houston TX. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 416919)

Distance learning educators may utilize techniques formerly designed for students with learning disabilities (LD) to enrich the experience of distance education students. Both LD and distance learners suffer from "learned helplessness" an inability to set realistic goals and a limited perception of the rewards of education. These problems, coupled with the transactional distance felt by learners in distance education, create a need for new teaching strategies that benefit both LD and distance learners. Faculty must become more aware of how to utilize technology to improve student-learning experience and realistically plan courses that include more hands-on activities. Instructors should also create conditions where students have equal access to technology that is not too difficult to operate. In addition, multimedia resources must be integrated into the course and evaluated to address the needs of both LD and distance education students. Colleges should no longer assume that only students with learning disabilities benefit from adaptive technology applications. New technologies and teaching strategies initially designed for the learning disabled may also have a positive impact on the learning experience of both traditional and nontraditional students.

Jarvis, K. (1997). Leveling the Playing Field: A Comparison of Scores of College Students with and without Learning Disabilities on Classroom Tests. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 415261)

A study was conducted to determine if providing additional time to complete classroom tests increases the test scores of college students with learning disabilities. Whether the accommodation allows the extra time necessary for students with learning disabilities to process the information, leveling the playing field, or whether it creates a comparative disadvantage for students without learning disabilities was explored with learning disabled and non-learning disabled students, all enrolled in 6 classes at a private college. Four nonstandardized multiple choice tests were administered to all participants over a semester. The first two tests were given without any accommodation, while the third and fourth tests were given with additional time for all students. Providing extended time on the test benefited all students, but this accommodation specifically contributed to an increase in scores for learning-disabled students, to the extent that their scores increased to the level of nondisabled students who were tested routinely. This accommodation did level the playing field for the learning disabled. Issues for further research include those of self- selection of accommodation by students, kind of learning disability, and type of test.

Jones, G.C., Kalivoda, K.S., & Higbee, J.L. (1997). College students with Attention Deficit Disorder. NASPA Journal, 34, 262-274.

The authors argue that because the population of college students with ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder) and ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) continues to increase, faculty, administrators, and support staff must better understand the definition and diagnosis of ADD, as well as relevant academic accommodations and modifications. According to the authors, new college students with ADD frequently find themselves overwhelmed by their new responsibilities. They list specific DSM-IV criteria that may help some faculty better understand the condition and its diagnosis and treatment. The authors offer seven specific suggestions for faculty who have students with ADD, such as communicating both orally and via syllabus a willingness to work with students with disabilities, coordinating with the college's disability services provider, and helping students identify critical areas of study in the course.

Kalivoda, K.S., Higbee, J. L., & Brenner, D.C. (1997). Teaching students with hearing impairments. Journal of Developmental Education, 20(3), 10-16.

The authors discuss needs and concerns specific to deaf/hard-of-hearing students with the goal that educators use this information to better accommodate such students. Barriers posed to deaf students by the hearing world's oral communication system are discussed, as well as devices and strategies they might use to circumvent such barriers. The differences between American Sign Language (ASL) and written English are discussed, and the impact these differences have on deaf students' writing products and standardized test scores. The authors make suggestions for what faculty can do in the classroom to better accommodate deaf/hard-of-hearing students. Specific accommodations and strategies regarding oral and written communication are discussed.

This article provides an illuminating portrait of the difficulties faced by deaf students in a sound-based world. Especially noteworthy is the comparison between ASL and written English, and the unique properties of ASL that may cause deaf students to write in ways that may be misinterpreted by instructors.

Longo, J.A. (1988). The learning disabled: Challenge to postsecondary institutions. Journal of Developmental Education, 11(3), 10-14.

With the rising number of non-traditional students entering colleges and universities, campuses are becoming more diversified. This author discusses some of the challenges that postsecondary institutions must face when accommodating the increasing number of LD students. This article begins with a brief definition of learning disabilities and basic information about this population. Then problems of identification and accommodation are also mentioned. Examples such as faculty awareness and understanding of disability and student disclosure are amongst the few that are described. Approaches toward modifying instructional practices along with solutions to addressing the needs of the learning disabled are offered. Also discussed briefly is the issue of college selection for students with learning disabilities. This article offers concrete solutions to some of the major dilemmas that postsecondary institutions confront with accommodating the learning disabled college student. These recommendations could serve to be beneficial for LD students and those who serve them.

Martin, J.L. (1991). Removing the stumbling blocks: 25 ways to help our learning disabled college writers. Teaching English in the Two-Year College, 18, 283-289.

Many students with learning disabilities do not get recognized because a great number of teaching faculty in university settings do not know what to do to assist them or just assume that they have problems with basic writing. This causes a great disadvantage for them. It is important for faculty to be current on research regarding teaching and learning because of the changing freshman population. The author gives a simple definition of learning disabilities and offers a guide to help understand this disability. Then a 25 point list of suggestions are offered that faculty can use to help these students be successful. The list includes items that are categorized in six areas: lectures and directions, assignments, class discussions and activities, response and grading, tests and in-class writings, and some general tips. This is an informative review of some topics for those who work with a diverse group of students.

Murphy, D.M. & Murphy, J.T. (1997).   Enabling disabled students.  Thought & Action, 13(1), 41-52.

This article addresses how it is important for instructors to be aware of the increasing number of students with disabilities that are enrolled in higher education institutions and the need for them to be prepared to accommodate these students in their instruction.  It goes on to discuss the legal issues involved with accessibility rights for these students and the need for these rights to be known by teaching faculty.  The issue of state and local government to adequately fund and administer programs so that resources can be available for individuals with disabilities must be dealt with in a proactive manner. The responsibility for the institutions is to insure that these students receive an opportunity to obtain an education by amending standards and rules and by providing programs and services. Beyond that, instructors must understand how to accommodate these students. The author further lists many misconceptions that instructors may have about students with disabilities.  Then they offer a solution: faculty training and development programs that address topics that specifically deal with people with disabilities. The authors give a detailed explanation of various disabilities, which include, learning disabilities, mobility impairments, visual impairments, and hearing impairments. In addition to that they give suggestions on how to adapt lessons to assure that these students learn.  This article is very helpful for instructors because it offers detailed explanations and gives tips on how to teach students with disabilities insuring that everyone experiences a positive learning environment.

O'Hearn, C. (1989). Recognizing the learning disabled college writer. College English, 51(3), 294-304.

Many learning disabled students have difficulties in writing composition, so the author offers suggestions that college faculty should consider when assessing students' writing to determine a learning disability or inexperience in writing. The author explains typical errors that the learning disabled may make in spelling, punctuation and capitalization. Then examined is how a total percentage of errors in student work is also an important factor in making a preliminary diagnosis. This article can be a good resource tool for composition instructors.

Orkwis, R., & McLane, K. (1998). A curriculum every student can use: Design principles for student access. ERIC/OSEP Topical Brief. [Eric Document Reproduction Service No. ED 423 654] [Internet: www.cec.sped.org/osep/udesign.htm]

This report is one of the first in the dissemination efforts for a project designed to examine how universal design principles can be used to modify instructional materials and procedures so that all students have equal access to the curriculum. This report introduces the concept of universal design as applied to curriculum design and demonstrates how digital technology is a very promising medium for establishing universally accessible instructional materials. The authors define equal access as it applies to curriculum, and briefly discuss relevant legislative mandates. They discuss the origin of universal design for physical spaces, how these principles generalize to learning spaces, and the qualitative similarities and differences of universal design principle application in each sphere. Whether designing physical spaces, curricula or learning materials, the bottom line is that "accommodations are built in rather than added as an afterthought". Universal design for the curriculum should result in diversity and flexibility, not the uniformity which is often the goal for universal design of physical spaces.

Parr, P., Levi, N. & Jacka, K.  (1996). Unspeeded examinations: An equitable and practical method of assessment.  (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED397108).

Granting extended time for students with disabilities to take examinations is a controversial issue; it is vital for these students because it can be the difference between passing or failing the course.  The purpose for this investigation posed by the authors is to differentiate the valid concerns from the invalid concerns that instructors may have about unspeeded examinations.  They reviewed literature by many prominent authors that address the issue of unspeeded test and how they change test performance in a positive way.  The literature also provided evidence that in order for testing to be fair for students with disabilities untimed tests must be considered.  The authors then discuss why this is necessary.  The authors further mention that various studies suggest that not only are most tests unfair to students with disabilities but they are also culturally biased.  The authors assert that timed tests do not demonstrate what students with disabilities know but just reflect their disability.  They argue that the Scholastic Aptitude Test, when taken by students with disabilities, reflect improvement when the students are granted extended time.

Rieth, H.J., & Polsgrove, L. (1994). Curriculum and instructional issues in teaching secondary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 9(2), 118-126.

The authors begin by discussing how mainstreaming learning disabled students into secondary school curriculum is not as effective as it could be. Students with learning disabilities tend to have more failure experiences in the mainstream classroom. The authors state that the mainstream curriculum needs to be modified to better fit learning disabled students' needs. Three "prototypic models" are presented. The model curricula involve incorporating cognitive, metacognitive and social skills training into classroom instruction.

The authors discuss the research regarding specific types of curricular content that are most beneficial for students with learning disabilities. They note that it is important to set appropriate but challenging goals for student achievement, but that few relevant guidelines regarding goal specification are available. However, there is evidence that actively involving students in the goal setting process has positive impact. The authors discuss how teachers need to acknowledge different learning styles and not create their curricula based on the assumption that all students learn in the same way. The article makes clear that it is important for LD students to be active learners in a structured curriculum which makes explicit conceptual links, gives frequent feedback, provides some metacognitive and cognitive skills training, and makes no assumptions about how students learn.

Content area strategies for reading/language, math, social studies, and science are presented. The authors note that there is a paucity of research on best strategies in the latter three areas. Issues related to environmental and procedural accommodations are also discussed.

Ruzic, R (2001). Lessons for everyone: How students with reading-related learning disabilities survive and excel in college courses with heavy reading requirements. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle Washington. internet: www.cast.org/udl/lessonsforeveryone1540.cfm

As stated by the author, college courses transmit content mostly through reading and lecture. This may cause academic difficulties for students with LD. Because most of the studies that examine students with disabilities in college collect information using retrospective interviews or surveys, the author approached the subject qualitatively by following a group of students and collecting data from a variety of sources. The study investigated the strategies these students use and how they correlated with students' perceptions of their abilities, course requirements, and educational goals. The students that participated attended a single large, urban, four-year college in the northeast. Using the data collected, the author then analyzed strategies associated with success and suggested implications (individual and institutional).

Sandock, B. (--) Enhancing learning of students with LD without compromising standards: Tips for teachers. Internet: http://www.ksu.edu/dss/Enhancing-Learning.htm

In this article, Sandock addresses the issue of how to accommodate students with LD while enhancing the learning of all students without compromising course content. Also emphasized is how faculty attitude is important when accommodating these students. This involves having an open minded approach to teaching in different modalities while considering the sequence of assignments and assessment strategies. Faculty must reflect on their own teaching styles in an effort to be concrete and sequential in their methods. In addition to this, the author gives helpful information and tips on how to prepare syllabi and lectures. The information presented is short, direct, and a handy reference tool.

Schnapp, L. (1995).  Educating postsecondary students with learning disabilities.  NADE Selected Conference Papers, 27-28.

The author explains how the need to service people with learning disabilities has changed education in the postsecondary setting.  Various issues such as defining learning disabilities, the need for students to accept their disability, and other issues pertaining to students are discussed.  Also addressed are the challenges that institutions and instructors must face to help these students be successful.

Schnapp, L.  (1997).  Writing success for the postsecondary students with learning Disabilities.  NADE Selected Conference Papers, Volume 3, 41-43.

In her article, Schnapp introduces a "multi-stage process" writing technique (before writing, during writing, and after writing) to teach students with learning disabilities better writing skills.  She details each of these steps that help students to work in different settings, group or individual, and gives details on how these are implemented through explanations and examples.  Then she later discusses how technology can help writers with special needs improve their writing skills.

Schuck, J.  (1992).  Teaching with (com)passion: A lifeline for students with learning disabilities. Faculty Development, 5(2), 1-3

This article helps faculty members understand the needs of students with learning disabilities in an attempt to raise teachers' compassion levels in instruction and interaction.   With the numbers of students with LD on the rise in college settings, due in part to the inclusive nature of their K-12 education, instructors must be aware of their needs.  One particular issue that the author displays is that many LD students hide their disability, sometimes until after failing an exam they then disclose their disability.  The disadvantage to that is an instructor then usually asks for proof of the disability, which is an uncomfortable situation for the instructor and the student.  So in order to eliminate some of the problems the instructor should be open in the beginning of the class by posting a statement of their open door policy on the syllabus.  This article continues to discuss issues that students with LD face in an attempt to help faculty to understand this disability.  Then they offer tips that help with accommodation.

Schwarz, R. & Burt, M. (1995). ESL instruction for learning disabled adults. Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED379966)

The authors begin by restating evidence that the lack of English acquisition among some adults suggests that a learning disability may be the factor. Offered are ways to identify ESL adults with learning disabilities. Along with this they list other reasons for lack of progress that should also be considered. Assessment measures are discussed that could help in the diagnosis of LD. In addition, ways to modify instruction and a few technology ideas are provided. This information can be useful for those working with diverse populations.

Scott, S. S. (1997). Accommodating College Students with Learning Disabilities: How Much Is Enough? Innovative Higher Education, 22, 85-99.

Discusses the ethical concern often faced by college faculty in balancing the needs and rights of students with learning disabilities with the academic integrity of the course, program, and institution. Briefly defines learning disabilities and federal regulations concerning them. Examines ethical issues and some misconceptions, and makes recommendations for informed and active participation of faculty in accommodating these students.

Scott, S.S. (1994). Determining reasonable academic adjustments for college students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27(7), 403-412.

The author discusses the importance of determining essential components at the program and course level. For learning disabled students, this means defining the "thinking and learning processes" that merit accommodation. Nondiscriminatory practice in higher education institutions is discussed from the standpoint of Federal law and implementation regulation documents. According to these documents, it is discriminatory to impose rules which deny access to necessary accommodations, deny auxiliary aids which put disabled students at a disadvantage, and require tests that are biased against disabled students. It is not discriminatory however, to deny accommodations if they result in compromising the essential standards of a program or course. Recent case law is discussed to illustrate these points and demonstrate their implementation. The difference between accommodation and personal service is discussed, and how the latter crosses the boundary of acceptable non-discriminatory practice.

The second part of the article deals with recommendations for how to operate in a non-discriminatory manner at both the institutional and classroom level. Recommendations are made regarding defining essential components, ensuring the adequate documentation of disability, determining whether a student is qualified to receive an accommodation, and whether this accommodation is reasonable. Though discussion is directed towards learning disabilities, the principles are applicable to any disability group.

Scott, S.S. (1990). Coming to terms with the "otherwise qualified" student with a learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(7), 398-405.

This article contains content which is similar to that in Scott (1990). The author discusses how to provide accommodations for learning disabled students without compromising the academic integrity of a program or course. The limits established by legislation and case law for what are deemed appropriate accommodations are discussed. Specifically, the author notes that "limitations in duty to accommodate include no fundamental alterations in requirements and no undue financial or administrative burden". A major theme in the article is how determining the essential components of a program or course establishes a foundation for evaluating which accommodations are most appropriate.

The article covers issues in admission standards for students with learning disabilities, accommodation strategies for these students once admitted, and institutional practices in these areas which follow the tenets of legislation and litigation. The article concludes with some concrete guidelines on how to implement non-discriminatory accommodation practices. The author outlines how to determine mandatory prerequisites and objectives (i.e. essential components) at both the course and program level, and how to define admissible accommodation strategies in light of these immutable program components.

Seeling, S. (1987). A college guide to LD service providers. Long Island University Transition Project, Long Island University, Brooklyn, N.Y., April 1987.

Admissions policies, implications of Section 504, the special needs of LD students, accommodations, support services, and the best approaches for meeting the needs of LD college student are the issues addressed in this article. The author first begins by discussing the usual college admissions policies. She states that most college personnel lack an understanding of what a learning disability is and may identify it as retardation; this perception becomes a barrier for LD students. Despite the fact that there is a growing awareness of how to accommodate students with special needs, it is still necessary for colleges to plan and initiate/develop appropriate accommodations for these students. When discussing Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 the author notes that many institutions fall short and must review its contents to prevent discriminatory actions. Understanding the LD college student is another section in this article. It talks about characteristics of these students displayed in the classroom setting. Also it mentions the cognitive and motivational factors of LD students. The next section provides suggestions and accommodation methods that faculty can use in the classroom. Then there is a brief overview given on how to make a support service program efficient. The ending of the article provides an appendix that includes sample forms used with LD college students. This gives concrete examples of things people can use in a higher education setting. This writing provides useful information that can be implemented in today's classrooms.

Shannon, D.M..  (1998).  Effective teacher behaviors in higher education and in LIS education programs: A review of the literature.  Journal of Education for Library and Information Sciences, 39(3), 163-174.

Though this article is in an LIS journal, most of the content remains generally applicable.  Only at the end of the article are issues discussed specifically within the LIS context.  The author presents a general overview of research related to effective teaching in higher education.  She argues that research focusing on abstract constructs such as flexibility and enthusiasm is less meaningful practically since "these..constructs are too vague to provide real help for individual instructors trying to improve their teaching skills." (p.164).  Hence, discussion focuses on research examining more concrete constructs related to teacher behaviors.  The instructor behavior research is divided into three sections: Process Product studies, or research that attempts to link teaching behaviors with students outcomes; studies examining students' perceptions of effective teaching, and; Teacher Immediacy studies, or research related to "verbal and non-verbal communication behaviors of college teachers that affect their relationship with students." (p.168).

In general, results of Process Product studies indicate that concrete behaviors projecting enthusiasm, clarity, and receptiveness most strongly relate to student outcomes and that this relationship is stronger for affective outcomes as opposed to cognitive.  Results of research related to student perceptions indicate that both students and teachers agree that organization, receptiveness, and subject matter knowledge characterize effective teachers, but they disagree on teaching approaches: "students are far more concerned with teacher enthusiasm and teacher stimulation of interest in the subject or the course, while instructors are far more likely to rate as important the teacher's ability to provide intellectual challenge and to stimulate students' intellectual curiosity." (p/166).  Thus it appears that students value approaches which, through the stimulation of affect (as opposed to the intellect), make course content more accessible to them and that instructor-valued approaches like "presenting thought provoking ideas" or "encouraging independent thought" are too focused on the assumption that all students come into the course with intellectual curiosity already piqued:  These constructs may also be too broad or vague for students to notice and appreciate, although it follows that they must be realized (at least in some students) when students become affectively engaged.  This is evidence that instructors should be more concrete in their instructional philosophy and approach.

The author also summarizes several models for enhancing instructional effectiveness: Lowman's Two Dimensional Model of Effective College Teaching which involved the instructor's capacity to instill intellectual excitement in students as well as establish an interpersonal rapport; the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education which was established by a task force of educators an researchers (see references for Chickering et al in this bibliography for more details of this model), and' Weimer's 5-step Process for Improving Teaching which advocates that instructors must take a systematic approach to improving instruction.

Though the article does not address didactical issues specifically related to disabled students, it is still relevant to instructors who, in the spirit of universal instructional design, wish to make learning more accessible to all students.  The article simply presents some "food for thought" on how to meet this objective.

Shuttic, M.  (1995).  Addressing the math requirement in higher education.  Latest Developments, Fall 1995, 2-3; 11.

This author tackles the question of math requirements for people with disabilities beginning by offering the legalities of case-by-case determination for students with special needs.  He goes on to discuss how the process of establishing what is expected and what are the alternatives can be time consuming.  Examples are used to illustrate the types of alternatives that are offered for various classes depending on the university and how assistance is provided to students in the classroom.  Despite accommodations in particular courses, the author questions a policy regarding requirement alternatives in an attempt to discover if institutions are meeting all the needs of LD students.  Finally the author makes suggestions that institutions should be able to meet the individual needs of students and that policies should address two points: ensure that certain requirements essential to the program are being studied and that policies should be able to address requirement alternatives.

Silver, P.  (1995).  Legal issues and college mathematics requirements.  Latest Developments, Fall 1995, 9.

The author discusses how students with disabilities are required to complete mathematics requirements. The author uses an example of how a student with a disability was denied a waiver for a math class by the college he attended. The college was not breaking the law by denying the waiver, but was required to offer accommodations including substituting the course with a statistics course. The authors offer another example of this and conclude by saying that service providers must consider accommodations other than waivers.

Smith, K. L. (1997).  Preparing faculty for instructional technology: From education to development to creative independence.  Cause/Effect, 20(3), 36-44; 48.

Educators have offered cooperative activities such as "think-pair-share" and "jigsaw", but these activities don't address the needs of those who may be at a disadvantage by these activities. This article addresses the need for teachers to find ways to reach all of their students by using various cognition and learning theory research. Teachers can foster a positive learning environment by using technology that creates an environment flexible enough to meet all students' needs.  If teachers use a learner-centered approach to instruction it can help all students succeed.  This article breaks down learning styles and strategies in a chart that is easy to refer to.  They integrate technology into curriculum modifications that can help all students.  The article goes on to detail how the University of Central Florida created a model to help implement research-based, technology supported, and student centered learning. This article is important to CTAD as it discusses how technology is important in class integration.

Sparks, R. and Javorsky, J. (1999). Students classified as LD and the college foreign language requirement: replication and comparison studies. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32(4), 329-349.

Because of the recent increases of students classified as LD, many of these students have received course substitutions or waivers for the college foreign language requirement. This data-rich study investigated whether LD students, who were permitted to substitute courses for the FL (foreign language) requirement, exhibited significant differences in cognitive and academic achievement skills from other LD students who fulfilled the requirements. Less than half of LD students in college who took a FL passed. Some received tutoring and only 4% received instructional accommodations. This report gives a lot more information and can be useful for administrators and faculty when making decisions about students with disabilities in relation to foreign language requirements.

Stefancih, G.P. (1998). Curriculum development in teaching science to students with disabilities. Paper presented at the annual conference of CSUN (Los Angeles, CA). [Eric Document Reproduction Service No. ED 420 940] [Internet: www.dinf.org/csum_98/csun98002.htm]

The author talks about how, in science, most students learn best by observation and active experience. But, these mainstream classroom practices of instructor modeling and student hands on experience are geared toward the 'typical student'. The author argues how these practices need to be modified to effectively involve all students, not just typical or average students. In this context, the author discusses a project aimed at training educators to modify the science curriculum in order to better facilitate disabled students' learning. The content, objectives, and dissemination plan of the project are presented.

This could be a good project to keep an eye on in the future. Information disseminated from the project could be a useful resource for science instructors.

Thomas, P. V. (1998).  Developing mathematical problem solving skills in students with learning disabilities.  NADE Selected Conference Papers, Volume 4, 43-44.

The author discusses the how the knowledge of mathematical problem-solving skills is important for students with learning disabilities to be successful in math.  This article gives details about a particular problem-solving course developed to assist high-risk students enhance their problem solving abilities through diverse teaching methods.

Tomlan, P., Farrell, M. & Geis, J..  (1987).  The 3 S's of staff development: Scope, sequence, and structure.  Journal of College Student Personnel, 28(1), 23-25.

This article addresses issues of staff development/personnel training that focus on topics relevant to students with special needs.  These tips can be used across all disciples.  They begin with a description of phase one of the model; this involves distribution, collection, and evaluation of faculty surveys that address attitudes, knowledge of various handicapping conditions, and accommodation.  Phase two of the design involves making faculty aware of disabilities and to answer general questions.  Phase three, which is similar to phase two but done in smaller group sessions, provides more in depth information about disabilities.  Phase four is even more personal as it addresses each faculty member as they encounter individual students in the classroom.  Then in phase five an evaluation such as the one done first phase is re-evaluated.  The authors include an important list that contains guiding principles for faculty development.  Then the authors discuss the importance of how a syllabus can help faculty and students.  This article gives good groundwork for implementing faculty and staff training and should be used by CTAD members when developing these types of trainings.

Waksler, R. (1996). Teaching strategies for a barrier free classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 7(2), 99-111.

The author presents 9 teaching strategies designed to eliminate barriers to student learning often imposed by presentation method and curriculum format. The strategies encompass three broad instructional concerns: the syntax or structure of content presentation, the structure of the physical classroom and course materials, and the methods of promoting student involvement/participation. Strategies addressing the first concern are meant to promote universal access to content, and deal with how to eliminate barriers between information presentation and cognitive processing of this information by students. Strategies addressing the second concern promote universal access to content structure, and advocate that material be presented and organized in a clear, structured manner, where the structure is readily apparent to all students. The final locus of strategies is designed to foster universal access to class participation and learning engagement.

Though these strategies are founded on the special needs of visually impaired and hearing impaired students, the strategies embody universal design principles, promoting better access for all students, not only those with certain sensory-perceptual deficits. The author concludes the article by stating that "In this way all students benefit from the enhanced clarity of the presentation and unnecessary barriers are not placed before students with visual or hearing impairments.".

Wallert, P. & Puffer, C. (1995) A systematic approach for assisting students with learning disabilities in postsecondary education. Internet: http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/postsecondary/ncld_prism.html

The authors recognize the need to address faculty attitudes and policies regarding students with disabilities in postsecondary education. This article offers suggestions as to how to specifically assist students with learning disabilities. Used to promote this is the acronym "PRISM": P-Planning, R-Reinforcement, I-Insight, S-Self advocacy, and M- Modifications and Accommodations. This plan can be used by evryone in the college community. The planning section addresses the issue of being prepared for students with LD in the beginning, i.e. freshmen orientation. Then reinforcement is explained as helping students understand the difference between high school and college and reinforcing that difference by offering them positive support. Insight involves the student understanding him/herself as a learner and what he/she needs to be successful. Self-advocacy is when the student understands that his/her strongest advocate is oneself and takes action on this. Finally the modifications and accommodation section addresses what teachers need to do in the classroom, for example offering a variety of ways to learn course material. The topics presented in this article give concrete information for those who work in classroom situations.

White, L.F. and Austin, S. (1998). Speaking for students with LD. Paper presented at the 49^th Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication, Chicago, IL, April 1-4, 1998.

This article discusses some of the issues and attempts to clear up some misunderstandings regarding learning disabilities (LD). It talks about the definition of LD and what it means to have discrepancy between IQ and achievement. It examines LD from a neurobiological standpoint and a behaviorist standpoint. The authors do this while reminding readers that there is no solid evidence to support any of these hypotheses and that the causes of LD remain hypothetical. The authors then go on to discuss conceptual problems with the IQ test and that the scores are not a good basis for diagnosing LD types of problems. The authors also discuss the sociological issues around LD. They state that diagnosing people as LD has a significant role in how people view each other in today's society.

Williams, A. & Hensley, B.  (1997). Tactile and auditory aids for mathematics students with visual impairments. NADE Selected Conference Papers, Volume 3, 58-60

In this article, the authors explain how certain teaching aids assist students with visual impairments become more productive in math subjects.  They give examples of aids such as more time for test and quizzes, use of tape recorders, and technological devices.

York, J., Doyle, M. & Kronberg, R.  (1992).  A curriculum development process for inclusive classroom.  Focus on Exceptional Children, 25(4), 1-16.

This article discusses strategies to meet the needs of students with disabilities in grade school inclusive classrooms that help all students in the class.  The authors begin by introducing the idea of inclusive education in a grade school setting.  Students with disabilities, who were temporally removed from the class for a brief amount of time, are now spending more time in the regular classrooms.  The educational system has outgrown separation of general and special education and now "more sophisticated" interaction is needed using the resources available in schools.  Teachers must be prepared for this in their curriculum.  The authors give an explanation of inclusion.  They clear up some of the misconceptions of inclusion and make it meaningful to more people.  Then the issue of curriculum is addressed, as one must change their way of thinking to encourage an inclusive setting.  A small list is provided to help educators shift their thinking to design a curriculum for students with disabilities, such as making students feel part of a community, teaching skills that are useful across contexts, and teaching specific skills that are respective to the curricular area.

Next, the authors share how to develop curriculum and implement it.  It is important for the teacher to develop proximity for students and understand how students learn most effectively.  A process is presented for developing curriculum that is effective for students with disabilities as well as general education students.  The group of educators, or "team", must get together in the Fall and discuss the issues of inclusion and transition of students into inclusive classrooms for the new academic year.   This article offers a list of charts and classroom activities that help students build a feeling of community and promote social connections.  Then it shows how to foster a positive learning environment and help the academic year be successful.  This article is full of information for teachers of grade school students, but can be helpful for CTAD participants by giving some ideas that can be generalized to higher education.

Zirkel, P. (2000). Sorting out which students have learning disabilities. The Chronicle of Higher Learning, 47(5), B15-B16.

Because the number of students with disabilities in college settings has risen, faculty must be aware of students that may have misdiagnosed learning disabilities. The author asserts that students diagnosed with LD in higher education settings usually have higher incomes on average and are often white. He says that the college community must be aware of this, and that the question should remain regarding whether some of these students are truly learning disabled or whether they are "upper-income game players". He suggests that colleges and universities should conduct research that systematically helps identify students with disabilities. Furthermore, Congress or the Department of Education should clarify the definition of LD and schools should interpret it more uniformly. Also, the values and techniques of high stakes testing should be closely examined and all students should be allowed to take untimed tests. This article can raise awareness of faculty members regarding how students with learning disabilities may be misdiagnosed and the policy implications of diagnosis/misdiagnosis.